Article No. 15

Honoring Cultural Differences: 
Change Management in Bulgarian Special Collections

Tatiana Nikolova-Houston
University of Texas at Austin

INTRODUCTION TO THE PAPER

Bulgaria, a nation for over 1300 turbulent years, nurtured the Slavic literacy of Sts. Cyril and Methodius, and Bulgarian scribes documented and transmitted the remnants of classical Greek civilization to Eastern Europe centuries before the Renaissance. Yet, the Renaissance came late to Bulgaria, and her Slavic works remain inaccessible and unknown, especially in the Western world.

Although all special collections with holdings of medieval manuscripts observe similar protocols for preservation and access, manuscript collections vary in their arrangement, quality of facilities, environmental control, staff, and levels of preservation and access. In Eastern Europe, foreign money and expertise have improved the condition of some holdings.

This paper explores the personal experience of the author in introducing change to the Historical and Archival Church Institute (HACI) in Sofia, Bulgaria, a collection of 1,509 manuscripts and early printed books from the 10th to 19th centuries. HACI excels as a research institution and repository of valuable manuscripts and archival documents, including incunabula, a first edition of the 1581 Bible, and other beautiful gold-illuminated manuscripts. Its miniatures with gold-plated frontispieces of the Evangelists shine as the most beautiful of the Bulgarian manuscript decorations created during the Turkish subjugation.

Information Technology in Bulgaria

Information science has long acknowledged a "digital divide" between economically advantaged nations such as the U.S. and disadvantaged nations such as Bulgaria. The divide deprives Bulgaria of technology necessary to preserve and utilize her resources and deprives the U.S. of the treasures of human knowledge stored in Bulgaria, for example, the medieval manuscripts stored at HACI that transmitted Western civilization from Byzantium to Europe.

Librarianship in Bulgaria poses special challenges because of economic crisis and the fragility of archival objects, juxtaposed on the valuable intellectual and intrinsic wealth of the collections. Although Bulgaria has a National Program for the Preservation of Library Collections, the program extends only to microfilming (Gergova, 1997, 6). Two manuscripts from the National Library, a Bible and a Koran, had been digitized prior to this case study, and those derived from the UNESCO "Memory of the World" project. Digital photography studios have begun to appear in the Bulgarian capital, Sofia, but digital cameras exceed the budgets of research institutions. The Bulgarian library community has a history of collaboration with the international library community, hosting many international information science gatherings.

Bulgarians acknowledge the digital revolution, yet a lack of funds has impeded effective implementation of digital technology. In spite of these limitations, Bulgarian linguists have approached the issue of preservation and access from the unique and groundbreaking computer processing of manuscripts into SGML text encoded for the Web. The Bulgarian Academy of Science-Institute of Bulgarian Literature since 1994 has worked on the "Repertory of Medieval Bulgarian Literature and Letters," applying information technology to the study of medieval Slavic manuscripts by encoding them to include the practices of modern archeology, paleography (deciphering manuscript text), codicology (creation and history of manuscripts), and textology (linguistic textual analysis) to create an electronic union catalog (Miltenova and Birnbaum, 2000, 6). Digital images, however, have lagged behind these coding and cataloging efforts.

Research Methods of Study

This paper utilizes the case study research method to investigate the introduction and diffusion of technological change by a foreign change agent into the Bulgarian library institution. The case study research method in this case refers to an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon in its native context; when the boundaries of the phenomenon and context are not evident; and in which multiple sources of evidence are used (Yin, 1984, 23). This case study emphasizes the interactions between the Bulgarians and the foreign change agent.

Research Questions addressed in this study:

1. Do Western theories of change apply within the cultural context of an Eastern European country? If so, do they have limitations and can they enlighten situational difficulties of intercultural interactions?

2. Can a foreign change agent improve the efficiency of intercultural communications?

3. What change management strategies prove efficient and effective in introducing change in a foreign environment?

Methods of Data Collection

The researcher, i.e., the change agent, immersed herself in the environment and gathered data over three years. Qualitative methods such as interviews, discrete and participant observations and conversations, and mail and e-mail exchanges with the participants revealed volumes of information about the problems arising in intercultural communication. Quantitative methods, such as classification and tabulation of field studies, documents, and artifacts in an electronic database, revealed information about the environmental and physical conditions of the facility, the collection as a whole, and of each particular manuscript.

Theoretical Construct of the Paper

The paper explores theories of national character, culture, cultural differences, and intercultural communication to develop a context to explain the behaviors and reactions displayed by the subjects of study. These theories enlighten the case study and reveal approaches to resolving misunderstandings between cultures. The theories include Edward T. Hall's theory of intercultural communication applied to theory of change, Geert Hofstede's theory of cultural consequences, and Everett M. Rogers' diffusion of innovation theory. All these theories of intercultural communication have intersected with theories of change. In addition to the theories, the case study analyzes the applicability of several strategic methods of change management.

INTRODUCTION TO THE CASE STUDY

Building Trust and Bridging Gaps in Bulgaria

The destruction of the Berlin wall in 1989 symbolized a paradigm shift, the opening of the Soviet-Bloc countries to the rest of the world. Inspired by Hermina Anghelescu who "plowed the rocky land" of transitional Romania of the 1990s (Owens and Anghelescu, 1999), the change agent of this paper introduced change in Bulgaria through physical and digital preservation of an important Bulgarian special collection of manuscripts and early printed books, part of the Bulgarian national heritage. The change agent applied the "managed change" model (Kovel-Jarboe, 1996, 622) with gradual implementation of change through a "pilot project" approach.

The HACI collection was established in the late 19th century, becoming a research institution 80 years later. With the fall of the Soviet government in 1990, significant budget cuts reduced the staff to three, with no money for cataloguing, conservation, or restoration. Currently, the parent organization grants no support and questions the collection's very existence. The institution reflects the Soviet-era hierarchy with the top managerial positions obeying the parent organization and ruling with an authoritative managerial style.

The change agent gained entrance into the institution gradually, through donations of technological items, although problems arose continually. In fall, 1999, the institution received a computer, yet the director complained because he had not chosen the company that sold the computer. The staff argued over the use of the computer for almost a year before turning it on. During this time, the staff perceived the change agent simply as a dedicated student of manuscripts who was contributing to improving libraries.

Having gained a measure of access to the collection, the change agent evaluated the collection's resources in some detail, a task that the institution accepted because the evaluation resulted in a comprehensive catalog that it could use to its own benefit. The catalog listed the storage conditions and the physical condition of each document. More importantly, the catalog gave the institution an understanding of the collection as a whole by presenting the items by origin, genre, and state of preservation. With the director's assistance, the change agent used this catalog to create a preliminary estimate of the magnitude of deterioration and to create digital photos of special documents: documents of exceptional beauty and documents in critical need of preservation. These photos became surrogate reference copies, placed on the institution computer, on CD-ROMs, and on the Web. They resulted in an obvious and immediate reduction in use of the fragile original documents and workload placed on the tiny staff. Later, the photos and the estimates of deterioration convinced funding authorities of the critical preservation situation.

Realizing the needs of the institution and particularly the needs of its director, the change agent devised a manner in which to meet those needs and which the institution found difficult to refuse. After writing a detailed report based on the needs assessment, the change agent publicized the project and solicited financial help. Those efforts resulted in a highly illustrated journal article (Computers in Libraries, April 2002), which generated donations from readers and two grants, the first, a research grant from IREX, and the second, a preservation grant from an ecclesiastical charity organization (The Order of St. Ignatius of Antioch). The large number of variables, including the uncertain economic and political situation in Bulgaria, prevented the development of an explicit strategic plan, so a tactical plan comprised the next step, which satisfied the charity organization and guided the next phase of change.

At this time, the change agent began to experience mistrust of her professional credentials and resistance to change. The change agent returned to Bulgaria in the summer, 2002, and initiated the most intense changes that she felt the situation would allow: a transformation of the institution from a dingy facility that furthered the decay of its collection, into an attractive facility designed to preserve the useful life of its collection. Yet, she met misunderstanding by the staff of her role and professional credentials. Because the collection evaluation had served as the change agent's graduate studies practicum, the institution staff regarded the change agent as a student, underestimating the professional status her training merited, a status exceeding even that of the staff and the other researchers. Amid this cloud of apparent mistrust, the staff allowed the change agent to initiate and conduct the project because of a promised second computer and digitizing equipment, an increase of the database, the creation of more CD-ROMs, and the rather large sum of money that donations allowed the change agent to distribute.

Other unexpected circumstances arose to hinder the project. The improvements would interrupt daily routines for perhaps three months in a society laboring under economic conditions that made survival a day-to-day issue. The changes would increase the visibility of the institution in the eyes of the world and in the eyes of its parent organization, always a dangerous change in a formerly totalitarian society.

Nonetheless, the project continued. The director and the change agent surveyed the entire collection, item-by-item, to determine the magnitude of a future re-housing project. This project would re-house all manuscripts in document cases in order to prevent their deterioration from environmental factors. The change agent conducted a thorough survey of environmental factors (humidity and temperature), and the physical state of deterioration of each manuscript. The survey showed that 73% of the materials in the collection had significant damage, larger than the original estimate. The director renovated the facilities, installed archivally sound shelving and housing, and performed modest maintenance of the items in the collection. Almost everyone involved in the project asked for payment in advance and complained about a lack of trust when the change agent insisted on compliance with the contracts. Families of the change agent and the director met over the dinner table and resolved the problem, and the director's family completed the work two months before the December 31, 2002 deadline and received their payment. Part of the grant funding process required detailed reports and documents from the institution. Again, accusations of mistrust appeared, necessitating the intervention of influential friends. In retrospect, all of the issues of contention have been resolved, and this change effected positive results and occurred because of an understanding of the surrounding culture and issues.

Ultimately, change not only took place, but gained commitment from the adaptor. The project concluded in March 2003, resulting in a complete remodeling of the storage facilities and the reading room of the institution, new steel storage shelving, and 43% of the manuscripts housed in new, archivally sound document cases. The director and his team endured hardships and illness from the highly contaminated dust collected over the decades. He successfully requested and received additional funds for the remodeling of the reading room facilities. He also ventured his own money for items that would increase the security of the collection.

NATIONAL AND HISTORICAL INFLUENCES AFFECTING THE CASE STUDY

Theories of Nation and Culture

Knowledge of national character increases understanding of the day-to-day problematic interactions between American change agents and their foreign adaptors. The term "national character," first formulated in Europe in the second half of the 18th century, describes forms of collective self-perception, sensibility, and conduct, shared by the individuals who inhabit a modern nation-state and postulates that the inhabitants of each nation share psychological and cultural characteristics. Johann Gottfried von Herder (1778-1779) defined nations as a product of their history and culture. Herder perceived each nation as a collective individual with its own character, language, mores, morality, and sense of self (Tragardh, 2001).

National mentalites, first developed by the French school of social history, inquired into deeply held values and assumptions. This social history discipline focused on phenomena such as human emotions, comparisons between past and present emotional standards, or processes of change. Geoffrey Bateson (1942, 62-68) stated that national characters are constructs stressing the existence of a system of differentiations originating in relation to a pattern (a set of stereotypes) recognized as being dominant (Frognier, 2001). Marko Semov (1995, 19) compared national character to volcanic magma, never the same form or shape, yet always remaining the same in essence.

Bulgarian History and Culture Affecting the Case Study

The reactions of the director and the staff in the case study had their historical roots in Bulgarian culture and history, a history that abounds with examples of changes that have influenced the turbulent development of the Bulgarian character in its surviving citizens. The reactions encountered in the case study of this paper reflect national characteristics developed over centuries.

Bulgarians survived the changes from foreign domination by developing survival strategies. Bulgaria saw approximately 700 years of foreign domination during its 1310 years of history: Byzantine (1018-1185), Turkish (1393-1878), and Soviet Communist (1944-1989). Semov (1995) described 37 Bulgarian authors and scholars from 1762 to 1995 and identified what appear to be common features of the Bulgarian national character. According to Semov, Bulgarians found refuge in home and family, faith and church, folklore, creativity, and hard work. They concealed suffering with humor expressed in songs and dances. In order to adapt, they developed behaviors such as fear, extreme patience, passivity, apathy, pessimism, low self-esteem, and even envy, betrayal, and bribery.

Bulgaria's foreign rulers used extreme brutality. After one battle, for example, the Byzantines sent home the entire surviving Bulgarian army, each man deliberately blinded. Bulgaria's oppression by the Ottoman Empire delayed from the 15th to the 19th century the adoption of the Western Renaissance in Bulgaria and imposed a foreign religion, language, monarchy, cultural elite, and system of taxation that involved the conscription of first-born males. Some Bulgarians resisted and died or fled to other lands. Some converted to Islam. The richest bought exemption from taxes and personal and religious freedom. Most, however, just waited, trying to survive from day to day.

In 1762, the monk Paisii instigated a major change in Bulgaria with his chronicle of Bulgarian history, appealing to Bulgarians to honor and preserve their national roots. A visionary of a unified Bulgarian nation, he traveled and urged others to copy his chronicle, inspiring over 60 copies of this manuscript. Bulgarians found their centuries-long patience rewarded and expelled the Sultanic rulers in 1878.

Soviet Communism conquered Bulgaria in 1944, executing millions and attempting to change the traditional values and beliefs of the society. Their centrally planned economy used the inflexible Soviet five-year plan. The Communist Party dictated policies "from above" to all organizations and instilled the hierarchical structure with little information flow and little motivation for improvement. In 1983, the Party experimented with Total Quality Management (TQM), which saw occasional success in changing corporate organizational culture, modifying some of the old Soviet mentality, valuing human resources, implementing constant learning and education, and applying high standards of quality to production. Field Theory and Systems Theory state that these changes would affect the whole system of culture. Government administrators, however, still viewed information as personal property and greeted any inquiry with suspicion. Throughout the country, Bulgarians resisted Communism as they resisted the Turks. Yet, Communist rule destroyed more heritage in its 45 years than the Turks did in 500 years, largely due to the importation of Communist techniques of populace control.

After the collapse of Communism in 1990, Bulgaria entered a Transition period of constant changes with frequent new governments. The so-called "repressive chaos" of the Transition period resulted from the breaking of the "authoritarian shell" of the Soviet system, leaving a "vacuum of values." Bulgarians resisted the changes of the Transition period. The older generation developed a system of survival strategies called samozadovolyavane (self-satisfying). The younger generation emigrated or turned to Western popular culture and vices.

CHANGE MANAGEMENT APPLIED TO THE CASE STUDY

Psychological Effects of Change

The most noticeable effects of change relate to human emotions and psychological reactions. Change forced from outside a system inevitably creates conflict in the system. William Bradford Cannon (1932) defined the theory of homeostasis, a theory in which an organism attempts to maintain stability by resisting change. In this case study, a fundamental conflict between stability and change came from the unequal degree of satisfaction of two basic needs: self-actualization and safety (after Abraham Maslow, in Duck, 1998, 70).

Managing change means managing conflict, resistance, and resolution of conflicting motivations. The literature acknowledges the negative effects of change on the human psyche as the natural reactions of stress, fear, anxiety, and personal loss in individuals, effecting productivity (Buch, 1997, 147; Duck, 1998, 58, 65). These reactions occur especially in the first stage of change, followed by the making of connections between old and new, and new beginnings involving planning and organizing (Buch, 1997, 147). Therefore, leaders, managers, and change agents must be aware of the psychological effects of change, the developmental stages of change, and the natural responses to change, and they must find the right strategies. The change agent must empathize and accept negative reactions as a natural response. The change agent must suggest different strategies to speed the transition and abstain from using force or manipulation where possible (Buch, 1997, 151).

Approaches to Change

The business literature provided strategies for implementation of change and information about the human aspects of change but presented only strategies and case studies and did not emphasize theory. Business literature author Peter Drucker (1999, 92) insisted that we have not witnessed yet a comprehensive social theory of change. Some business authors recommended participative change strategies: Kanter (1998), Kotter (1998), Buch (1997), Duck (1998), and Reich (2000). Others recommended educative change strategies: Senge (1990) and Guthnecht (1988). A survey of the business literature displayed the presence of cultural influence: Max Weber (1947) reflected his German orientation, Henri Fayol (1949) reflected the French, and Frederick W. Taylor (1913) reflected American values.

Library and Information Science (LIS) literature differentiated between the technological and psychological implications of change. Irene Owens and Hermina Anghelescu (1999) applied a method of change management for post-Communist Romania based on Patricia Kovel-Jarboe's "managed change" model (1996). Kovel-Jarboe (1996) and Lyndon Pugh (2000) presented a holistic treatment of change management in information centers, linking available theories, strategies, models, and structures to organizational culture. Pugh also presented strategic planning as the best approach to change management and even equated strategic planning with change management (Pugh, 2000, 184).

Strategic planning involves analyzing the organizational environment before making decisions for implementation of change. Drucker (1974,121-22) perceives it as continuous, systematic process of entrepreneurial decisions based on awareness of future consequences and customer needs. The case study of this paper followed the strategic planning model of Robert Stueart and Barbara Moran (1998, 49-50) in evaluating internal and external factors. Internal factors include strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT), and external factors include political, economic, social, and technological (PEST) factors.

Three Social Science Theories of Intercultural Communication and Change

Social Sciences literature provided the most useful material for implementing change in foreign countries. Three important sources of theories for this study emerged: Hall (1973. See also Hall and Hall, 1989), Hofstede (1991; 2001), and Rogers (1986).

Theory 1: Edward T. Hall: Theory of Intercultural Communication

Edward T. Hall remains widely recognized as the founder of the field of intercultural communication, first defined and introduced in his classic The Silent Language (Hall, 1973, Rogers et al., 2002). Culture is a form of communication and a program for behavior where members share methods of coding, storing, and retrieving information, a program that possesses its own intrinsic dynamics, principles and laws. Hall enlightened both general and academic readership about the micro-level behavior of interactions between people of different cultures and introduced the concept of "non-verbal communication" and the effect of space and time on it (Hall, 1973, xiv, 34, 98-99).

Hall's theory of culture as communication attempted to explain cultural differences through constructs of context, personal space, and time. Hall (1973, 28) classified time and culture at the three levels of formal, informal, and technical. Foreign change agents should understand the resistance to their enforcing changes in the formal foreign cultural norms, appreciate those formal norms, and avoid introducing changes that violate formal norms (Hall 1973, 85). Change agents should attempt to change only technical norms (1973, 86). Hall (1973, 28) developed his theory of change as a continuous progression from formal belief to informal adaptation and technical analysis.

Theory 2: Geert Hofstede: Theory of Cultural Consequences

Geert Hofstede based his theory on his comprehensive study of the influence of culture on values in the workplace. Hofstede (2001, 9) defined culture as "the collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from another." Hofstede also viewed culture as a product of external and internal change forces, as norms changing rarely through direct adoption of values, but indirectly through shifts in technology, economy, and hygiene. Hofstede (2001) provided a theoretical framework for motivating people in more traditional societies to accept change. He developed four major indexes (Power Distance Index (PDI), Individuality Index (IDV), Masculinity Index (MAS), and Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI)) to analyze culture. He defined the PDI (Hofstede, 2001, after Mulder, 1976; 1977), as "the relationship between the boss and subordinate in a hierarchy … the interpersonal power of influence between them." He defined the IDV as "the relationship between the individual and the collectivity that prevails in a given society, reflecting the way people live together." His MAS referred to the dominant gender role patterns in the vast majority of both traditional and modern societies, the patterns of male assertiveness versus female nurturance. The UAI, derived from Cyert and March's 1963 organizational theory, described the degree of culture being threatened by uncertainty and explored the level of anxiety and the methods of societies for coping with uncertainty, i.e., technology, rules, and rituals.

Hofstede (2001) built a "motivational world map," locating countries according to their universal order of needs. Two of his quadrants pertain to this paper. In the Anglo-American quadrant, wealth, recognition, and "self-actualization" motivated individuals. In another, containing France, Spain, Portugal, former Yugoslavia, and some Latin and Asian countries, security and relationships motivated individuals. Hofstede (1980; 2001, 374) warned American change agents about the danger of applying American-based theories such as Maslow (1943), Herzberg, Vroom, and McGregor in foreign countries.

Theory 3: Everett M. Rogers: Diffusion of Innovation Theory

Everett M. Rogers continued the legacy of Hall in the area of intercultural communication, and he developed further the process of communicating innovative ideas through certain channels over time among members of a social system (Rogers, 1986, 10). Rogers' diffusion of innovation (DI) theory viewed diffusion of innovation as a social change within the structure and function of a social system (1986, 6). He examined innovations in different cultural contexts, the relationship and communication barriers between the change agent and the adaptors, and the consequences of the innovation, discovering (1986, 122) that the American-born model of diffusion of innovation was inappropriate for developing countries. The Rogers continuum from homophily (similarity) to heterophily (difference) applied change theory within cultural context. Rogers postulated that the rate of adoption of innovation depended on the degree of homophily or heterophily between agents and adaptors, with effective communication and adoption happening more quickly between homophilous individuals (Rogers, 1986, after Lazarfield and Merton, 1964). He suggested motivators able to improve the communication process and increase the rate of adoption: a gain in social status, decrease discomfort in the work place, immediacy of reward, and various other incentives.

From four decades of personal experience, the change agent for this case study saw that American models of change management do not apply to Bulgarian organizational culture at this stage of Bulgarian social development. For example, Bulgaria has been collectivist for much of its recorded history and does not support Maslow's 1943 hierarchy of needs. Bulgaria lies in Hofstede's "former Yugoslav" quadrant as a country of individuals that value safety and survival of self and family, group members, and networks, followed by financial incentives. Maslow's hierarchy fits an individualistic society that values self-actualization and does not fit in a Bulgarian context, where the needs for control, safety, and security prove most essential.

Application of the Three Theories to the Case Study

During the project, many difficulties arose, and trust increased very slowly, experiencing continuous resistance. From a Western viewpoint, the change agent perceived a lack of motivation and an unwillingness to comply with Western standards of preservation and contract observance. Gender and cultural differences obstructed communication predictability and effectiveness. Three theories dealing with change and innovation (Rogers), culture, intercultural communication, and cultural differences (Hall), and cultural consequences (Hofstede) will illustrate the case study.

Theory 1: Hall's Theory of Intercultural Communication

Cultural context influences a person's beliefs, habits and emotional reactions. The director of the institution, for instance, could not grasp the nature of American business transactions. Instead, he resisted Western standards of preservation, calling them "megalomania." He resisted writing a program of action for implementation of the project until threatened with the loss of all of the donated money. In Hall's terms, the director, raised in the "high-context" cultural environment, did not need explication and contracts. He reacted against the American "low-contextuality," i.e., the requiring of excessively detailed information, personalizing the disagreement in terms of lack of trust. The change agent emphasized the technical nature of the request, satisfying the requirements of the grant and the need for spelling out details, which allowed the director to comply. Hall (1973, 78-79, 85) warned Americans to understand and accept the formal systems of other people and to avoid introducing changes that violate formal norms. Hall suggested an emphasis on technical changes, dealing with details of operations (1973, 86). Hall defined Mediterranean cultures as "high-context," because most of the information resides inside the person. In contrast, Hall designated Americans "low-context," with information exchange vested in the explicit code of the communication. Cross-cultural conflicts in communication occur when high-context people become impatient with low-context people, or when low-context people feel that high-context people do not provide enough information.

Societies perceive and use time differently, causing conflicts when partners lack understanding of their cultural differences. Americans, defined as monochronic, pay attention to one thing at a time, view time linearly, and schedule and value time differently than do polychronic people. They require more information, adhere to a plan of action, and emphasize promptness. Conversely, polychronic people, such as Bulgarians, are more time-flexible, perform many tasks at once, change plans often and easily, tend to build lifetime relationships, and base promptness on relationships. Americans tend to isolate their personal relationships from work relationships and require detailed background in their information needs.

Theory 2: Application of Theory of Cultural Consequences

Although Bulgaria is not included in Hofstede's survey of 52 countries, his results for neighboring Yugoslavia, Turkey, and Greece easily apply as countries of similar cultural, historical, and religious traditions. Bulgaria's high degree of class inequality, in terms of Hofstede's PDI, explains the high degree of centralization, hierarchy, autocratic managerial style, and seniority in professional expertise (Hofstede, 2001, 107-108) that the Soviet regime reinforced. Hofstede claims that Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, Italy, and China belong to the "exogamous communal type, …being attracted to communism, because communism is a transference to the party state of the moral traits and regulatory mechanisms of the exogamous community family." (Hofstede, 2001, 246, quoting Todd, 1983, 42) Traditionally, Bulgarian society developed as more collectivistic in its organizational and societal structures, but either system makes irrelevant Maslow's hierarchy of needs (Hofstede, 1991, 73). Hofstede's MI cannot clearly define Bulgaria's gender roles and patterns of behavior, however Hofstede's UAI proves relevant, because all Mediterranean countries rate high in UAI (Hofstede, 2001, 151). During the present transitional period, Bulgarians experienced an accelerated rate of uncertainty, stress, and anxiety. Bulgaria, because of its history as a traditional type of culture, is more resistant to changes, suspicious toward foreigners as managers, and does not completely trust people, as implied by Hofstede (2001, 160). Hofstede's prime motivators (1991, 126), safety, security, and belongingness, proved useful in motivating the adaptor (the director) in this case study. He overcame an initial resistance, became part of the project, chose technological solutions, and ultimately performed in a highly dependable and consistent manner.

In an attempt to actualize Hofstede's findings, an international team conducted the Copernicus Project, comparing three Eastern (Bulgaria, Czech Republic, and Poland) to three Western (France, Germany, and UK) European countries to investigate the values and practices of European managers (Collet, 1996). The three Eastern European countries scored similarly against the three Western. Hofstede's PDI ranked Bulgarian managers with 58 points, compared to 35 for UK. The study questioned Hall's chronemics theory (time affecting communication), defining certain nations as monochronic (US) and others as polychronic (China, Japan, etc.). The study discovered the impossibility of building a continuum for topics such as power, time, and context, which are multi-dimensional, but suggested a variety of dimensions pertaining to these topics. Time orientation, for instance, consists of the dimensions of time concern, status time, future orientation, and flexibility, and the Context orientation consists of the dimensions of intimacy, business first, reciprocity, acquaintance, and fidelity (Collett, 1996, 7).

Theory 3: Diffusion of Innovation (DI) Theory

In a developing country such as Bulgaria, innovations encounter numerous economic and social barriers. In this case study, the DI theory explained the barriers to adopting innovation through an understanding of the communication process. Rogers (1986, 321) postulated the use of empathy to overcome heterophily and understand the sub-linguistic, deep emotional and intellectual effects of changes occurring in the host, referred to as the adaptor.

Empathy succeeded in this case, allowing the change agent to address the need that the director felt for control. Based on the reaction to the contentious computer purchase, the change agent allowed the director to select vendors. The change agent initially assessed problems within the organization, examining all records and archives, creating a vision of the total project, and suggesting methods of implementation for housing of the collection, but she allowed the director himself to decide and initiate the implementation process. The new technological tools and this creative participation empowered the director to make his own choices, reward his own network, and implement the changes, an approach prescribed by Mary Jo Lynch (1992, 17). Confidentiality, stressed by Lynch (1992, 17) and Rogers (1986, 324, citing Placek, 1975), proved extremely important to the director, who repeatedly accused the change agent of revealing the project to others. The change agent repeatedly agreed and, as Lynch suggested (1992, 19), repeatedly emphasized the significance of Western preservation standards and business transactions, using honesty and reasonable firmness.

The DI theory helped to explain the consequences of innovation happening at the institution. Rogers stressed that change agents can never predict whether or not their effects will be positive (Rogers, 1986, 31-32), but they carry the responsibility for the consequences. One of those consequences included a widening of the gap between the host institution and its neighbors. The neighbors coveted the financial benefits. The changes introduced in the Bulgarian institution caused tension and feelings of professional envy among the staff and researchers. The donation of a second computer, solely for the staff, alleviated the unexpected and emerging digital gap between the staff and the director.

Application of Four Change Management Strategies to the Case Study

The business literature suggested strategies for handling change, which Pugh (2000, 41-45) divided into four approaches: educative, participative, coercive, and contingency. Each approach applied to this case study.

Approach 1: Participative approach

Participative strategies handle resistance and motivation through knowledge, understanding, and involvement. Rosabeth Moss Kanter (1983, 159, 306) stressed perseverance, empowerment, and the ability to make everyone a hero as the most important characteristics of successful change masters, defined as "the right people in the right place at the right time." Those individuals possess new problem-solving ideas that move beyond the organization's established practices and form visions that can promote positive values. John Kotter (1998, 3) emphasized a sense of urgency and communication of an obstacle-free vision.

In this case study, the participative approach occurred through entering and organizing all data into a database. The most urgent priorities of the project emerged as the improvement of the micro and macro environment of the collection, the re-housing of the endangered 73% of these incredible historical and esthetic objects, and the provision of electronic access to scholars and lay people all over the world.

Kim Buch (1998) and Jeanenne LaMarsh (1995) stressed the importance of communication, empathy, showing concern, and constant support. In this case study, the vision of the project had to be reiterated constantly. As Jeannie Daniel Duck (1998, 61) mentioned, a lack of communication builds a vacuum that generates gossip, alienation, and resistance. In the case study, however, both sides tempered Duck's advice by the situational necessity of deliberately withholding information about the project from the other two staff members. In Bulgaria, spies remain as a legacy of totalitarian days, and information must be withheld to avoid sabotage. At the conclusion of the project, funds for a new computer were allocated for staff research, displaying concern for their needs, giving them short-term wins and perhaps increasing their future loyalty. As Kotter (1998, 16) suggested, both the director and the change agent persevered cautiously without declaring victory prematurely, enduring ridicule and hardship. Perhaps the changes will penetrate further the institution's organizational culture through the technological innovations. The complete success of the project, however, envisions employing highly competent technical and scholarly staff, such as an archivist or library professional and a computer expert (system administrator). The current staff also needs technical training and computer literacy.

Empathy and a personal relationship fit best in the Bulgarian setting, because networks of family and friends played such an important role in the conduct of business. The change agent befriended the director's family and shared common concerns about children. The son built a computer, installed the software, and constantly repaired the system network at the institution. Later, the whole family helped the director in the renovation of the facility. The change agent empathized with the director, appreciating the anxiety and stress present at the institution and the deep frustration of the director in his constant struggle for institutional and personal recognition before the parent organization. Throughout, and in accordance with Robert Reich (2000, 162), a sense of humor and occasional "tough love" significantly alleviated perplexing situations.

Approach 2: Educative approach

The educative strategy holds people as responsible and rational beings and advocates effective change management through communication and learning. Peter Senge (1990) and LaMarsh (1995) advocated the "learning organization," providing education, new skills, and training. In this case study, the introduction of new technology, especially the digital camera, encouraged and inspired the director to learn new skills. As he saw the application of digital photography to his research, he became enthusiastic and supportive. This experience implies the validity of the creative thinking approach, advocated by Guthnecht (1988, 65-77). The donated equipment and accompanying insights served as short-term wins to motivate the director to cooperate with further change.

Approach 3: Coercive approach

The coercive or authoritarian strategy uses a system of rewards or withdrawal of resources as motivators. This approach became the approach of last resort. For example, the director began to treat the change agent with disrespect, questioned her character and motives, and threatened her ability to document the project for the funding agencies. A polite but firm telephone call saying that the money might have to find a more cooperative institution produced the needed documentation. In other, less severe situations, as typical for Hall's high-context cultures, the network of family and acquaintances assisted to solve various problems.

Approach 4: Contingency approach

The contingency approach depends on understanding the situation, personalities, education, and training of the staff, and application of different techniques, after Pugh (2000, 44-45). Of the four strategies, the contingency approach proved most useful. Empathy and constant clarification of issues facilitated the institution's process of internalization of change.

The coercive approach, the financial reward for completion of the work, however, remained a constant and powerful motivating factor, because it unified the director's family in implementation of the project, yielding high quality workmanship and rapid completion.

In this case study and in Kanter's terms, these seven characteristics define the effective change master for managing change in a foreign country:

1. Evaluation/Needs assessment: assess the institution to discover the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT).

2. Empathy: accept human emotions as a natural response to change and the cause of the resistance that some nations have to American ways.

3. Empowerment: provide the opportunity for creative thinking, learning, and decision-making.

4. Enhance the adaptor's professional status and his family's security and safety and motivation through monetary and non-monetary incentives.

5. Communication: convey a clear vision and a state of urgency; constantly clarifying foreign concepts and cultural differences.

6. Confidentiality: respect the source, and do not spread information outside until the project is completed.

7. Cooperation/collaboration: participate with the hosts, and provide methodological and technological assistance.

IN SUMMARY

This paper explored theories of national characters, mentalites, culture, and cultural differences and showed the impact of history on the formation of national identities. External changes in more traditional societies, such as Bulgaria, cause great disruption and emotional resistance because of the national character. Foreign change agents, even those born in the host country, must abstain from forceful disruption and changes of the formal cultural norms, but introduce changes of a technical nature (Hall), applying empathy, professional expertise, and clarification of the cultural differences (Rogers). The paper discussed strategies for handling change and emphasized the contingency approach, which combines both participative and educative strategies to increase motivation for change.

The changes of this case study disturbed the equilibrium of the Bulgarian special collection. Short-term technological gains and assistance, such as the computers, catalogs, and financial incentives, mitigated the massive imbalance between the patterns of the past and the unknown future. Despite the internal complexity of the organization, the external forces introduced by the foreign change agent caused the organization to motivate itself into self-organizing as one of the most advanced research collections in the country. The success of the project relied most heavily on the application of the contingency approach to a "managed change" model through a variety of techniques, management styles, and principles. The situation dictated what should be done, gradually implementing small changes in small stages. Hopefully, those changes will become a lasting part of the organizational culture and behavior.

About the Author

Tatiana Nikolova-Houston, a doctoral student in Library and Information Science at the University of Texas at Austin, studies Preservation and Access for the graphic documentation of Western and Near Eastern Civilization as expressed in medieval manuscripts and early printed books. She dreams of uniting the library communities of the technological West and the historical and cultural East through collaboration on a special project: the electronic virtual reunification of national patrimonies, i.e., restoration of the graphic records of a nation by means of electronic digital imaging.

Her highly illustrated Websites include "Byzantine Medieval Hypertexts" and "Slavic Medieval Treasures from Bulgaria".

Her publications include "Byzantine Hypertexts" in TEKKA and "Questing Across the Digital Divide for Hidden Treasures of Slavic Manuscripts".

She has presented at several international conferences, including the Global Fusion 2003 Conference, the Society of Literature and Science 7th Annual Conference "Rethinking Space and Time," the 7th Joint Meeting and Conference of North American and Bulgarian Scholars, the 38th International Medieval Congress, Kalamazoo MI, and frequent conferences in Bulgaria, such as "The Monastic Culture of the Balkans" and "Computer Processing of Medieval Slavic Manuscripts."