The Case for Concepts and Cases for Understanding Global Communication

Review by

Emmanuel C. Alozie

Kwadwo Anokwa, Carolyn A. Lin, and Michael B.Salwen, eds. International communication: Concepts and cases. Belmont, CA: Thomson/Wadsworth, 2003, 297 pp., $63.95 (paper). ISBN 0-534-57519-6.

In an increasingly global world, where information travels instantaneously, influencing almost every facet of human existence, including socioeconomic development, cultural evolution, international relations and diplomacy, the role of international communication remains dynamic, but largely under-researched. Despite its significant influence, the availability of reliable data and sources about the role of mass media in various regions of the world remains scant for students, researchers, diplomats and government officials. The vacuum is much more pronounced with regard to developing regions of the world of Africa, Asia, Latin America, and the Middle East. Realizing that need to provide a source that balances theoretical and practical perspectives, Kwado Anokwa, Carolyn Lin, and Michael Salwen took on the task of gathering leading scholars from various parts of the globe to examine the dynamic and complex function of the mass media within and across national boundaries.

Organized in seven sections, International Communication uses a case study approach to explore the tenets of global communication. The foreword, preface and introduction address the universality of issues and challenges facing international communication and the growing need to develop and explore models that direct attention to the impact of global communication with regard to the flow of information, technology and diffusion, globalization, commodification, and culture, among others. Part I explores press freedom in various regions of the world, while Part II addresses the role of propaganda in international communication. Part III concentrates on the gate-keeping function of the mass media; Part IV deals with colonialism and development. Part V addresses globalization and explores the concept of diffusion; Part VI the role of culture in international communication.

In Chapter 2, Picard argues that history, cultural norms, and domestic laws affect press freedom and the degree of freedom varies from one European country to the other. Conflict between the press and governments in Europe exist in areas dealing with military matters, hate speech, intelligence service, pornography and libel where governments tend to impose strict rules. For example, Germany instituted restrictive press law following the Holocaust to curtail hate speeches, while Great Britain instituted punitive libel laws that discourage unfair criticism of public officials and individuals.

Exploring the relationship between eastern-oriented concepts of universalism, idealism, relativism and pragmatism to western-inspired libertarian, social responsibility, authoritarian and developmental theories, Chang (Chapter 3) notes that the degree of press freedom China media enjoy is influenced by the role that the government ascribes to them as a vehicle for socioeconomic development. Noting that China’s press freedom in China remains restrictive; Chang points out that at China’s current stage of development, the government views the mass media as an important vehicle for national development. He states that envisioning that important role for the mass media compels the Chinese government (as well as others in the developing world) to restrict press freedom allowing them to exert a high degree of influence in the media system. This is unlike the developed nations of the west where the mass media enjoy much greater freedom. However, it should be noted that government in developing and developing nations do manipulate the media to meet the needs of a regime as chapters 4 and 5 demonstrated.

In Chapter 4, Alarcon explores how Spanish and French officials successfully employed propaganda techniques that underscored the benefits of their associations to persuade their reluctant constituents to approve international treaties. Spanish officials employed propaganda to gain support for NATO membership, while French officials used propaganda techniques to gain support to become a signatory to the Maastricht Treaty. The mass media in both countries remained the essential vehicles for the successful propagation of the campaigns. In Chapter 5, Nicholas depicts how the United States has spent, and continues to spend millions, conducting international propaganda campaign against Fidel Castro of Cuba through the U.S.-sponsored Television Marti. He observes that despite the huge investment, the station reaches a minuscule viewing audience due to jamming, its short frequency and inconvenient broadcasting time, rendering the station largely ineffective. Resented by Cuban regime, the propaganda it conveys engenders animosity between the nations.

Chapter 6 by Lule and Chapter 7 by Herscovitz are devoted to gatekeeping in news selection. Lule analyzes the New York Times coverage of the 1998 severe flooding which occurred in Latin America in 1998, contending that the U.S. press primarily exposes Americans to extreme international events — disaster and tragedy. In his comparison of gatekeeping in dictatorial and democratic regimes, Herscovitz argues that the form of government influences the choice of news. Using Brazil as a case study to explore the role of gatekeeping during military and democratic administrations, Herscovitz finds that restrictive press laws made it hard for journalists to address the government corruption, failures and mismanagement during the military regime. On the other hand, with the removal of the military government, press freedom blossomed. In his analysis, however, Herscovitz does not fully consider the largely accommodating role that private media such as Cisneros in Venezuela and O Globo in Brazil have filled for a variety of democratic and dictatorial governments.

In Chapter 8, Neher examines the theory of development communication that was cultivated in the West and introduced to Africa and elsewhere as a means to promote socio-economic change. Neher argues that developmental communication has produced disappointing results in Africa because of its failure to consider cultural norms. Salwen (Chapter 9) analyzes the colonial discourse present in Evelyn Waugh’s coverage of the Italian invasion of Ethiopia in the 1930s. Ethiopia is one the few countries that was never colonized by a European power. Salwen’s qualitative analysis of Waugh’s reporting brings to the fore the covert persuasive socializing technique of colonial discourse. Salwen finds that Waugh’s reporting stereotyped and generalized Ethiopian culture from a Western viewpoint.

Subsequent essays consider the cultural impact of globalization. Atkin offers an engaging history of Hollywood, exploring how its films and other products help to embed American values and ideals globally, suggesting that this proliferation of Americanism is a form of imperialism. He argues that Hollywood’s financial, technical, and distribution superiorities are a driving force behind American global cultural dominance. Frith explores the role of international advertising in the global economy. She finds that American advertising firms and their creations dominate the global medium of advertising for many of the same reasons Atkin proffers. In Chapter 12, Ang, Chan, Hong, and Lee examine the development, impact, and social role of mass media in Singapore, Hong Kong, Taiwan, and South Korea. Although they note the different development paths of media in these countries, the authors discover that mass media played significant roles in the rapid socioeconomic transformations of the Asian tigers.

Straubhaar provides a historical account review dependency theory within the context world system, in Chapter 13. The review attempts to tie the concepts of media imperialism and cultural imperialism to the contemporary debate on dependency. Revisionist in nature, Straubhaar’s argument fails to demonstrate his assertion that the cultural impact of western media is declining in developing countries. He overlooks the continued primarily one-way flow of information, mass media content, and media technology from the developed North to the developing nations of the South. Rampant media globalization and with it the growing hegemony of western communication giants such as Time-Warner AOL, News Corp, Fleishman-Hillard and Reuters contradicts his claim.

Pelton (Chapter 16) explores the theory of diffusion and evolution of information and communication technologies. He notes that the pace of change in international communication has made national governments ineffective in dealing with application, technical standardization, regulation, trade, media content, and legal implications. Their ineffectiveness has forced them to surrender control of regulations governing international communication to global governing bodies. It should be noted that Western governments dominate these bodies--with an increasing influence from international media corporations. The International Telecommunication Union has already opened membership to media-and-telecommunication conglomerates, and has begun accepting corporate sponsorships. Critics argue this welcome to supra-media organizations will adversely affect the conduct and regulation of international communication. Indeed, the ITU and other regulatory groups have been adopting policies that favor the developed nations (and their media) over the developing nations. Assuming that Pelton’s prediction of a bright future for information and communication technologies in the global market holds, it could be argued that since the governing bodies are controlled by elites of the North and the development of new technologies and media content remains their purview, then dependency, elite media hegemony, and cultural imperialism will likely grow rather than diminish.

Boyd (Chapter 14) underscores how the economic, political, and cultural orientations of a society influence the development and role of the mass media. Investigating media in the Arab world, a region largely bound by a common language, Islamic religion and oral tradition, Boyd finds that the common heritage affects press freedom, growth of transnational broadcasting, media content, and consumption in complex ways. For example, although some Arab governments influence media content for their own narrow national interests, the development of information technologies and transnational media enable Arab consumers to receive diverse information and contents across borders, promoting and reinforcing the transnational political and cultural bonds among Arabs. He suggests that as transnational media grow, especially in radio broadcasting, governments will loosen their grip on media because of their inability to control information from outside. In the final chapter, Rogers concludes that the diffusion of information and communication technologies has not only made the world smaller through globalization, but it has also contributed to the spread of common values. Although, people are exposed to ideals and cultures other than theirs, the ramifications of Michael McLuhan’s “global village” and technological determinist have not necessarily been unifying, rather people are resisting the invasion of other values as was hoped.

Considering the growing need for texts on international communication, this book offers students of international communication, political scientists, social scientists, anthropologists, and others, a wide range of concepts, cases studies, and theories using data, observations, and speculations from around the world. Despite some factual errors and the occasional generalities, the wide variety of views offered provides an outstanding opportunity to examine, contemplate, and understand the role of international communication from many competing perspectives. Unfortunately, this collection of essays did not take up some of the pressing issues of the day, including the rapid consolidation of global media, the rise of religious and cultural fundamentalism, the appearance of the threat of terrorism, and how national governments are responding to these developments.. Despite these limitations, this text has value by tackling the complexities and ambiguities of international communication theories. While the contributors and editors state categorically, the text does not pretend to be exhaustive in its coverage or offer distinctive communication model, they have made a valuable contribution to the discipline. The other strength of the book is that its exploration of regional history, its focus on developing nations, and its concern with trends in information technologies, relies on a case study approach that provides readers with both macro-and-microscopic views of international communication.

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